The British Government (then led by the recently elected Margaret Thatcher) issued invitations to all parties to attend a peace conference at Lancaster House. These states wanted South Africa to pressure Ian Smith to accept a faster transition to majority rule in Rhodesia, in return for pledges of non-interference in South Africa's internal affairs. [82] ZANU's agenda was left-wing and pan-Africanist; it demanded a one-party state with majority rule and the abolition of private property. [8][9][10], In view of the outcome of the referendum, the territory was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923. Salisbury went on using the shortened name in an official manner nevertheless,[4] while the British government continued referring to the country as Southern Rhodesia. [162] After Zimbabwe's independence, the new government closed its missions in Pretoria and Cape Town, only maintaining a trade mission in Johannesburg,[163] while the South African Diplomatic Mission in Salisbury was also closed.[164]. License this Film. [36] Smith ruled out acceptance for all five of the British principles as they stood,[37] implying instead that Rhodesia was already legally entitled to independencea claim that was overwhelmingly endorsed by the predominantly white electorate in a referendum. After the UDI, Rhodesia maintained several overseas missions, including Pretoria,[141] and until 1975, Lisbon in Portugal and Loureno Marques (now Maputo) in Mozambique. [6], On 11 November 1965 the Cabinet of Rhodesia issued a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI). After World War II the population grew as many people migrated to the city. [79], Nkomo's public endorsement of a violent strategy confirmed white politicians' opposition to ZAPU and fed their negative attitudes towards black nationalists at large. [61][62] The ruling set the precedent that despite the UDI, the incumbent Smith government "could lawfully do anything its predecessors could lawfully have done". After World War II the population grew as many people migrated to the city. 17th January 2023 Always Worth Saying 20th Century, Arts, History 3081 Comments. Salisbury the capital city and the very pulse of Rhodesia, is, with its population of half a million people, the fifth largest city in . See, [rathall+rhodesia++Minister+of+Finance+and+of+Posts+and+ With few exceptions, the international community backed Whitehall's assertion that Gibbs was the Queen's only legitimate representative, and hence the only lawful authority in Rhodesia. In 1976, the South African government and United States governments worked together to place pressure on Smith to agree to a form of majority rule. "[119] Mugabe, however, would reverse his commitment to these agreements some years later; the regime began confiscating white-owned farmlands. This boom prompted the immigration of about 200,000 whites between 1945 and 1970, taking the white population up to 307,000. [57], The South African Diplomatic Mission in Salisbury became the only such mission remaining in the country after 1975,[160] when Portugal downgraded its mission to consul level,[161] having recalled its consul-general in Salisbury in May 1970. Rhodesians Reflect on the Elections of 1979 and 1980", Rhodesian Bush War historical research / discussion forum, Ironing the lawn in Salisbury the last days of Rhodesia, 1975 BBC report on the failure of negotiations between the Rhodesian government and the black nationalists, The Brookings Institution: Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, Selby, Angus (2006) "Commercial Farmers and the State: Interest Group Politics and Land Reform in Zimbabwe, 18902005", PhD Thesis, Oxford University, Audio of Ian Smith's radio address announcing UDI, Southern Rhodesia African National Congress, Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhodesia&oldid=1134347187, States and territories disestablished in 1979, States and territories established in 1965, Articles with dead external links from April 2019, Articles with permanently dead external links, Articles with dead external links from December 2017, Short description is different from Wikidata, Use South African English from April 2016, All Wikipedia articles written in South African English, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters, All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2017, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016, Articles needing additional references from May 2020, All articles needing additional references, Articles needing additional references from February 2011, Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Zimbabwe articles missing geocoordinate data, Articles missing coordinates with coordinates on Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 18 January 2023, at 06:44. [6] Rhodesia declared itself a republic on 2 March 1970. In 1923, the company's charter was revoked, and Southern Rhodesia attained self-government and established a legislature. Match drawn . However, many native Africans still adhered to traditional African religions. [83] ZIPRA's failure to obtain support from the locals was also noted, and ZANLA began implementing a long-term covert politicisation programme to cultivate civilian support throughout its future area of operations. From 1965 to 1979, Rhodesia was one of two independent states on the African continent governed by a white minority of European descent and culture, the other being South Africa. [5][20] As the white population increased, so too did capital imports, especially in the wake of the Second World War. Special Branch War: Slaughter in the Rhodesian Bush Southern Ndebele land, 19761980. [94], The war degenerated into rounds of increasing brutality from all three parties involved (ZANU and ZAPU, and the Rhodesian Army). [33][34][35] Smith, the colony's first Rhodesian-born leader, soon came to personify resistance to liberals in British government and those agitating for change at home. Even during the boom years of the late 1950s, when Rhodesia took in an average of 13,666 white immigrants per year, mostly from the United Kingdom and South Africa, an average of about 7,666 whites emigrated annually. [93], The government adopted a strategic hamlets policy of the kind used in Malaya and Vietnam to restrict the influence of insurgents over the population of rural areas. Until after the Second World War, the landlocked British possession of Southern Rhodesia was not developed as an indigenous African territory, but rather as a unique state that reflected its multiracial character. In April 1979 special forces carried out a raid on Joshua Nkomo's residence in Lusaka (Zambia) with the stated intention of assassinating him. The government amended the Constitution in 1987 to abolish the seats reserved for whites, and replace the office of Prime Minister with an executive President. Note: Zimbabwe formerly known as Rhodesia now calls its capital Harare, instead of Salisbury, as it was known at the time of this film being shot. [6] However, Waley also testified that majority rule was not desirable immediately. [96]:6593 As the white population of Rhodesia had a low birth rate (18 per 1,000 compared to the African rate of 48 per 1,000[131]), to maintain white population growth was largely dependent upon taking in new white immigrants with immigration accounting for 60% of the growth of the white Rhodesian population between 1955 and 1972. Green: Rhodesia; purple: friendly nations; orange: hostile states; grey: neutral countries, Unilateral Declaration of Independence (1965), Military and political escalation, 19721976, Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 that provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia. Trees found in these Eastern Highlands included teak, mahogany, enormous specimens of strangling fig, forest newtonia, big leaf, white stinkwood, chirinda stinkwood, knobthorn and many others. In the late 19th century, the territory north of the Transvaal was chartered to the British South Africa Company, led by Cecil Rhodes. While often extraordinarily successful in inflicting heavy guerrilla casualties, such raids also on occasion failed to achieve their objectives. The South African government placed limits on the fuel and munitions they supplied to the Rhodesian military. The United Kingdom government immediately brought in legislation (Southern Rhodesia Act 1965) which formally abolished all Rhodesian government institutions. Following amendments to the country's constitution in 1987, parliamentary seats reserved for whites were abolished, and an executive presidency was created, held by Mugabe. [43] The nationalists also murdered a number of black Rhodesians who were accused of collaboration with the security forces. The governments of Zambia and Botswana were also emboldened sufficiently to allow resistance movement bases to be set up in their territories. When Rhodesia set up the Rhodesian Information Office in Washington, DC, OAS nations loudly protested. Approximately 70% of black Rhodesians spoke Shona, and around 20% spoke Ndebele. The Bush War continued unabated and sanctions were not lifted. [126] Members of the security forces contaminated supplies before replacing them in guerrilla caches or planted them in rural stores to be stolen by the guerrillas during raids. The spacious, modern city that has risen from such recent . Rhodesia predominantly adhered to Christianity, with Protestantism being the largest denomination. Amongst a century of detritus at the BBC there lies some buried treasure. [124] Rhodesian units compensated for their disadvantage in this regard by pursuing an aggressive preemptive and counterstrike strategy, raiding neighbouring states to destroy guerrilla forces in their external sanctuaries. Six months' continuous residence was also required for qualifications (b) and (c). Many expatriates and some of the whites who stayed in Zimbabwe became deeply nostalgic for Rhodesia. [76], As early as 1960, minority rule in Southern Rhodesia was already being challenged by a rising tide of political violence led by black African nationalists such as Joshua Nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole. [28] The policy of "No independence before majority rule" transformed the white community's relationship with the UK and increased its suspicions of the British government's untrustworthiness and duplicity in colonial affairs, especially since the latter had adopted NIBMR as a formal policy - the very circumstance UDI was carried out to avoid, and which white Rhodesians had struggled to resist since the onset of decolonisation. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs were hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotus, cassia, tree wisteria and dombeya. [21][64] The Waley Commission found that in practical as well as legal terms, "Europeans must surrender any belief in permanent European domination", pointing out that minority rule was not permanently sustainable. The Pioneer Column halted here on 12th September and the next day the Union Flag was formally raised. [79] In 1963, ZIPRA also made its first formal request to the Soviet Union for military training. [166], Since Rhodesia was a former colony of the United Kingdom, all of the sports that were born in the United Kingdom enjoyed considerable popularity in Rhodesia; especially cricket, rugby, football, netball, golf, tennis including the Rhodesian Open Tennis Championships, lawn bowls, field hockey, etc. The 1969 republican constitution established a bicameral Parliament consisting of an indirectly elected Senate and a directly elected House of Assembly, effectively reserving the majority of seats for whites. [123], From 1975 to 1980 the Rhodesian government made several attempts to weaponise chemical and biological agents. They established a relatively balanced economy, transforming what was once a primary producer dependent on backwoods farming into an industrial giant which spawned a strong manufacturing sector, iron and steel industries, and modern mining ventures. A sustained period of civil unrest between 1960 and 1965 further polarised relations between the government and the increasingly militant black nationalists. The Constitution of the short-lived Zimbabwe Rhodesia, which saw a black-led government elected for the first time, reserved 28 of the 100 parliamentary seats for whites. It was bordered by South Africa to the south, the Bechuanaland Protectorate (later Botswana) to the west and southwest, Zambia to the northwest, and Mozambique to the east and northeast. [6] A twenty four-member commission headed by an eminent jurist, Lord Pearce, was therefore tasked with ascertaining public opinion on the subject. Are you involved in working with the earth either in new ways of farming or landscape design? ZANU led by Robert Mugabe won this election, some alleged,[who?] Ed Bird. [86], The practical alliances between ZIPRA and MK, and later ZANLA and FRELIMO, prompted Rhodesia to look increasingly towards South Africa and Portugal for active assistance. The storage tanks burned for five days, giving off a column of smoke that could be seen 130 kilometres (80mi) away. The settlement was named in honour of the then Prime Minister of Britain: Lord Salisbury. E/C Neg.) Salisbury, Rhodesia. [65][66][67] Both efforts failed to achieve agreement, although Harold Wilson added a sixth principle to the five he had previously enunciated: "it would be necessary to ensure that, regardless of race, there was no oppression of the majority by the minority or of [any] minority by the majority." The observers and Soames were accused of looking the other way, and Mugabe's victory was certified. Yes! [74] Smith remained optimistic that Heath would do his utmost to remedy Anglo-Rhodesian relations, although disappointed that he continued to adhere publicly to the original "five principles" proposed by Alec Douglas-Home, now foreign secretary. It became a municipality in 1897 and a city in 1935. A rigid system of countermeasures enacted to combat sanctions succeeded in blunting their impact for at least a decade. Geneva: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, 2002. 11 November 1965 [has] marked the turning point of the struggle for freedom in that land from a constitutional and political one to primarily a military struggle. [19] Small, rotating cadres of colonial civil servants who possessed little incentive to invest their skills in the local economy were insufficient to compensate for this disadvantage. Throughout the period of its Unilateral Declaration of Independence (1965 to 1979), Rhodesia pursued a foreign policy of attempting to secure recognition as an independent country, and insisting that its political system would include 'gradual steps to majority rule.' This was not the case under British law, however, which considered the territory's legal name to be Southern Rhodesia, the name given to the country in 1898 during the British South Africa Company's administration of the Rhodesias, and retained by the self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia after the end of company rule in 1923.[3]. This led to internationally supervised elections, won by Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front and Robert Mugabe, establishing the internationally recognised Zimbabwe. [90] Rhodesian representatives made it clear they were prepared to fight an all out war to prevent majority rule. [70] Due to ZAPU's close relationship with the Soviet Union, ZANU found itself ostracised by the Soviet bloc but soon found a new ally in the People's Republic of China. Having let slip one chance after another of reaching an accommodation with more moderate black leaders, Rhodesia's whites seem to have made the tragic choice of facing black nationalism over the barrel of a gun rather than the conference table. Southern Rhodesia had long been distinctive among British dependencies in that it had financed and developed its own security forces and command structure. Field was succeeded by Ian Smith, chairman of the conservative Rhodesian Front Party and an outspoken critic of any immediate transition to majority rule. Salisbury, Zimbabwe Sign - 'Radio City' camera pans down to show various radios for sale. [96], Brownell asserted that patriotism in the white community was "shallow" due to its essentially expatriate character. Guerrillas began to launch operations deep inside Rhodesia, attacking roads, railways, economic targets and isolated security force positions, in 1976. Description. [19] Its natural abundance of mineral wealthincluding large deposits of chromium and manganesecontributed to the high rate of conventional economic growth. It was therefore vulnerable to the economic cycle. GV . Lived in Salisbury, Rhodesia (1963-1965) 2 y I was lucky enough to live in Southern Rhodesia from August 1963 to December 1965. [106], The work of journalists such as Lord Richard Cecil, son of The 6th Marquess of Salisbury, stiffened the morale of Rhodesians and their overseas supporters. Some of yourcontributionscan be historical materials, old photographs, reminiscences etc. [6], During a two-proposition referendum held in 1969, the proposal for severing all remaining ties to the British Crown passed by a majority of 61,130 votes to 14,327. Define Salisbury, Rhodesia. [44][45] However, given its self-governing status Rhodesia had no longer been within the United Kingdom's direct sphere of influence for some time, and the facade of continued British rule was rendered a constitutional fiction by UDI. Nervous Conditions starts in 1968 as 13-year-old Tambudzai's life journey begins in a village not far from the town of Umtali (Mutare) in then Eastern Rhodesia. Interestingly, the blue bus circumnavigating the roundabout is, I think, one belonging to a small company that ran services to one of Salisbury's northern suburbs, Marlborough, and was just known . [122] The Rhodesian military was backed by the British South Africa Police (BSAP), a well-equipped police force whose title was derived from the law enforcement division of the British South Africa Company. Nevertheless, few could doubt that Mugabe's support within his majority Shona tribal group was extremely strong. In 1970, the United States declared it would not recognise UDI "under [any] circumstances". [79] Its political ideology was somewhat more influenced by the principles of Maoism than ZAPU, and a sympathetic Chinese government soon agreed to furbish weapons and training for ZANU's own war effort. [96], However, the American historian Josiah Brownell noted that the turnover rate for white residents in Rhodesia was very high, as Rhodesia took in a total of 255,692 white immigrants between 1955 and 1979 while the same period a total of 246,583 whites emigrated. [43] In response to the formation of ZIPRA, the Rhodesian government banned ZAPU, driving that party's supporters underground. [5] This situation certainly made it very different from other lands that existed under colonial rule, as many Europeans had arrived to make permanent homes, populating the towns as traders or settling to farm the most productive soils. The combined loss of Mozambique and the loss of support from South Africa dealt critical blows to the Rhodesian government. [29] However, once Rhodesia had been introduced as a topic for discussion in international bodies, extension of the status quo became a matter of concern to the British government, which perceived the scrutiny as a serious embarrassment to the United Kingdom. [83] It was also in the process of cultivating a military alliance with the leading black nationalist movement in Mozambique, the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO). It became a municipality in 1897 and a city in 1935. [83] On December 21, a group of ZANLA insurgents under Rex Nhongo crossed into Rhodesia from Mozambique and raided an isolated commercial farm. [59] Smith had intended to have Dupont named Governor-General, but Queen Elizabeth II would not even consider this advice. The Rhodesian Air Force operated an assortment of both Canberra light bombers, Hawker Hunter fighter bombers, older de Havilland Vampire jets as well as a somewhat antiquated, but still potent, helicopter arm. Salisbury was the capital of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-63). [43] Their explosive charges failed to detonate and were discovered by the security forces, who tracked the insurgents to a nearby ranch on April 28. [6] Nevertheless, the new settlement, if approved, would also implement an immediate improvement in black political status, offer a means to terminate racial discrimination, and provide a solid guarantee against retrogressive constitutional amendments. Answer (1 of 12): Without the shadow of a doubt ! [155] In 1973, the Labor government of Gough Whitlam cut post and telephone links to the centre, but this was ruled illegal by the High Court. These economic successes owed little to foreign aid apart from the immigration of skilled labour. This is correct. This changed immediately after the election of Edward Heath, who reopened negotiations. The deep recession of the 1930s gave way to a post-war boom. Good general shots of Salisbury, shops, traffic, modern buildings, street scenes, skyscraper blocks, modern flats and apartments, statue of Rhodes, British and non-British goods in shops. In a CBS news interview, Mugabe claimed that Rhodesian whites "are still in control of the economy, the majority being commercial farmers. [84][85] The action at Sinoia has been commemorated by supporters of the guerrillas since as "Chimurenga Day", and occupies a place of pride in ZANU hagiography. By 19781979, up to 70% of the regular army was composed of black soldiers (though both the army and police reserves remained overwhelmingly white). Until 1972, containing the guerrillas was little more than a police action. [122] The BSAP had armoured vehicles of its own and a potent paramilitary capability. 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